Edmonton, the capital of Alberta, is a city with a rich and fascinating history spanning thousands of years of indigenous presence, the fur trade era, the pioneer days, and its rapid transformation into a modern metropolis. For those who want to truly understand the city's historical landscape, walking tours are an unbeatable way to explore the streets, buildings, and places that carry the legacy of the past. Unlike a quick glance from a bus or car window, a walking tour allows you to stop, look closely at architectural details, listen to fascinating stories, and soak up the atmosphere of the neighborhoods that have shaped Edmonton over the centuries. Fortunately, the city offers an impressive variety of walking tours — from official tours organized by the city and museums to private tours led by history enthusiasts, from self-guided routes with booklets to tours that combine history with food, art, and even ghosts.
These tours range from classic historical walks through the city center, where you can see buildings that have survived for over a century, to specialized tours that explore specific themes such as immigration history, the labor movement, architecture of different eras, the lives of prominent figures, or even mystical ghost stories. Some tours are free or donation-based, making history accessible to everyone, while others are paid but offer exclusive access, expert guides, and unforgettable experiences. In this article, we'll take a detailed look at the various walking tours of Edmonton that allow you to discover the history of this dynamic city step by step.
Official Self-Guided Historical Walking Tours of Edmonton
For decades, the City of Edmonton has developed and maintained a series of self-guided historical walking tours that allow residents and visitors to explore the city's historic neighborhoods at their own pace and on their own schedule. These tours are presented in the form of detailed PDF booklets that can be downloaded for free from the city's website, printed out and taken with you on your walk, or viewed on your smartphone or tablet during the tour.
Downtown Edmonton Historical Walking Tours is the most comprehensive series of self-guided tours and includes four separate routes that can be taken individually or sequentially, covering different parts of the city center. Each tour includes a route map, historical information about the buildings and places along the route, and contextual stories about Edmonton's development from a Hudson's Bay Company trading post to a modern city.
Tour I: Heritage Trail begins at the Macdonald Hotel, a stately castle-like hotel on a hillside overlooking the North Saskatchewan River, and roughly follows the original route from the Hudson's Bay Company fort to the Edmonton settlement. The Heritage Trail is marked by red cobblestones on the sidewalks and includes numerous plaques and sites of historical significance. The tour takes visitors past such landmarks as McDougall United Church (1909), one of Edmonton's oldest churches; the Salvation Army Citadel (1925) with its castle-like appearance; Masonic Temple (1931), designed in the Gothic Revival style; Gariepy House (1902), one of the oldest houses in the city center, now functioning as a restaurant and bed & breakfast; McKay Avenue School (1881, 1904), where Alberta's first legislative assembly met after it became a province in 1905; and finally, the Legislature Building (1907-1912) itself, Alberta's stately Beaux-Arts-style government building.
Tour II: Jasper West and Warehouse District begins at the corner of Jasper Avenue and 107 Street and contains the largest concentration of historic buildings in the city center. This area was the heart of commercial Edmonton in the early 20th century, and the tour includes buildings such as the MacLean Block (1909) and Jasper Block (1909), early commercial construction; First Presbyterian Church (1911), an impressive red brick church; Mercer Warehouse (1911), Horne and Pitfield Building (1911), Revillon Building (1912-1913), and other warehouse and commercial buildings that served the booming fur trade and agricultural economy of early Edmonton. These buildings showcase a variety of architectural styles, from early commercial to Art Deco, and many have been restored and adapted for modern use while retaining their historic character.
Tour III: Downtown and Rice Howard Way and Tour IV: Jasper East continue the exploration of the city center, covering bank buildings, hotels, theaters, and commercial structures that tell the story of Edmonton's economic growth and architectural ambitions in the early decades of the 20th century.
Strathcona Historical Walking and Driving Tour explores the Old Strathcona neighborhood on the south bank of the North Saskatchewan River, which was a separate town until it merged with Edmonton in 1912. Old Strathcona is one of Edmonton's best-preserved historic districts, with the largest collection of Edwardian-era (1901-1914) buildings in the province. The walking tour, which takes about 2.5 hours, takes visitors along Whyte Avenue—the commercial heart of Strathcona—and the surrounding streets, where you can see the Strathcona Public Building, the Princess Theatre (one of the oldest operating movie theaters in Canada, opened in 1915), The Strathcona Hotel with its rich history, Old Strathcona Farmers' Market, Fire Hall #1 (now the Walterdale Theatre), Holy Trinity Anglican Church, Knox Evangelical Free Church, Connaught Armoury, and numerous historic residential buildings. This neighborhood is a living museum of Edwardian architecture and street culture, and the walking tour allows you to fully appreciate the historic charm of Strathcona.
Highlands Historical Walking Tour explores the Highlands neighborhood in northeast Edmonton, one of the city's oldest residential areas, developed in the 1910s. Highlands is known for its diverse residential architecture, ranging from modest craftsman-style bungalows to more stately Tudor Revival and Colonial Revival homes. The Highlands Historical Society organizes guided walking tours of the neighborhood, which include the Edmonton Highlands Historical Walking Tour booklet and last approximately two hours. Tours are held during the summer during the Edmonton Historical Festival and by appointment for groups. The cost is $10 per person, with children under 12 free.
These self-guided tours are a great option for those who value flexibility and independence, allowing you to explore at your own pace, stop for photos or coffee, and return to places of particular interest. The booklets contain enough information to make the tours educational and engaging without the need for a guide.
Toonie Tours Edmonton: Free walking tours based on donations
Toonie Tours is Canada's largest network of free walking tours and operates in Edmonton, offering high-quality tours with passionate and friendly freelance guides. The company was founded in 2018 by three Canadian patriots with the goal of inspiring the world through authentic, entertaining, and always interesting tours and experiences. The name “Toonie Tours” comes from the Canadian two-dollar coin, known as a “toonie,” hinting that the tours operate on a donation basis — participants pay what they think is fair at the end of the tour, based on the quality of the experience.
The Edmonton City Highlights 3-Hour Walking Tour is Toonie Tours' flagship offering in Edmonton. This three-hour tour explores downtown Edmonton, covering the main sights, architecture, history, and urban culture. Toonie Tours guides are locals with deep knowledge of the city and a passion for storytelling, and they are known for their ability to bring history to life and make it engaging through personal anecdotes, interesting facts, and two-way dialogue with participants. The tour may include locations such as Churchill Square, City Hall, the Art Gallery of Alberta, the Alberta Legislature Building, historic neighborhoods, and the river valley, depending on the route and season.
What makes Toonie Tours particularly appealing is its tip-based compensation model, which rewards and retains the best guides in the industry. Since the guides' income is directly dependent on participant satisfaction, they are constantly developing their skills and stories, receiving real-time feedback on each tour to continuously improve and set ever-higher standards of quality. This creates a competitive environment where only the best storytellers and educators survive.
Toonie Tours also offers private tours and special programs for groups, corporate clients, and special occasions that can be customized to specific interests or needs. For those who want to explore Edmonton on a budget but don't want to sacrifice quality, Toonie Tours offers the perfect combination of affordability and professionalism.
Edmonton City as Museum Project (ECAMP) Curiosity Walking Tours
Edmonton City as Museum Project (ECAMP) is an initiative of the Edmonton Heritage Council that transforms the entire city into a living museum through interactive, engaging, and participatory experiences integrated into Edmonton life. ECAMP Curiosity Walking Tours is a series of specialized walking tours that explore a variety of topics related to Edmonton's history, culture, architecture, and social movements.
Working Downtown Edmonton Curiosity Tour (also known as “Strikes, Struggles and Success”) explores the history of Edmonton's working class by telling the stories of the people who built the city. The tour covers the history of Indigenous labour, the contributions of immigrants to the city's infrastructure, key strikes and protests (including the amusing Chocolate Bar Strike of 1947), and the evolution of labour rights and working conditions in Edmonton. This is a tour that focuses on the “little people” — the workers, activists, and union organizers who are usually left out of traditional historical narratives, but whose efforts were fundamental to the city's development.
ECAMP regularly organizes tours during the Edmonton Historical Festival in July, as well as throughout the year in partnership with the Edmonton Public Library and other organizations. Tours typically last 2-3 hours, cover approximately 2.5-3 km, and cost around $15 for adults (children under 12 are free). Registration is usually required as space is limited.
ECAMP also invites suggestions from the public for new Curiosity Walking Tours for future seasons, demonstrating the organization's openness to public participation and diverse perspectives. This means that tour themes and routes are constantly evolving to reflect current community interests and new research on Edmonton's history.
Talking Rock Tours: Indigenous History and Natural Geography
Talking Rock Tours is a nationally recognized, 100% Indigenous-owned and operated company offering unique walking, hiking, and snowshoe tours that explore Alberta's natural wonders through an Indigenous cultural lens. Founder Keith Diakiw, a proud Métis Canadian, has developed tours that combine geology (“science for the MIND”), Indigenous stories and teachings (“stories from the HEART”), and the history of the land (“history of the EARTH”).
The Edmonton River Valley Discovery Tour is Talking Rock Tours' flagship offering in Edmonton. This walking tour takes participants along the North Saskatchewan River (kisiskâciwanisîpiy in the Cree language) through North America's largest urban park, the Edmonton River Valley. The tour explores how this river has been critically important to Indigenous peoples for millennia—for travel, trade, fishing, gathering food and medicine—and how sacred sites along the river continue to be significant to Indigenous communities today.
The tour includes a traditional smudging ceremony, indigenous storytelling, teachings about medicinal plants that grow in the river valley, the geological history of the region (including the time of the dinosaurs), the history of the fur trade, and pre-1867 Canadian history (i.e., history before the creation of Canada as a country, when this land was exclusively indigenous territory). Keith also talks about Professor Dr. Dwayne Donald from the University of Alberta, who is of Papashase Cree descent and has ties to the Blackfoot, and who also leads walking tours of the river valley, telling the story of the Papashase Cree—a nation that once occupied the territory that is now southeast Edmonton (including the entire Mill Woods area), and whose land was illegally taken in the 1880s.
The Edmonton Indigenous Heritage Tour by minivan transports participants to various sites of significance around Edmonton, including Fort Edmonton Park, the Rossdale Memorial (a burial site near the Epcor plant where the remains of Indigenous people were found and a reburial ceremony was held in 2007), Alberta Legislature Grounds with its reconciliation garden, and other locations. More than a sightseeing tour, it is a respectful journey into Indigenous stories, history, and land.
Talking Rock Tours has received numerous awards and recognition for its contribution to cultural tourism and reconciliation, and is a member of Indigenous Tourism Alberta. Tours are small group (usually up to 15 participants), ensuring an intimate experience and opportunity for two-way dialogue between the guide and participants. For newcomers, especially those from countries with limited Indigenous presence or awareness, Talking Rock Tours offers a deep, transformative introduction to Indigenous perspectives, epistemologies, and relationships with the land.
Alberta History Tours: Specialized History Tours
Alberta History Tours is an organization specializing in in-depth, research-based historical tours that explore specific themes, locations, or periods in the history of Edmonton and Alberta. Founder Tim Marriott is a local historical interpreter with many years of experience researching and presenting Alberta history.
The Edmonton Cemetery Historical Walking Tour is one of Alberta History Tours' most popular tours. Edmonton Cemetery, located at 118 Avenue and 82 Street, is the final resting place of many of Edmonton's original settlers and founders, and the tour takes visitors through the cemetery, telling the stories of the people who shaped early Edmonton—pioneers, politicians, activists, historians, businesspeople, as well as tragic stories of murder and mystery. Edmonton Cemetery was established in 1886 and contains over 35,000 burials, including Edmonton's first mayors, members of Alberta's first legislative assembly, war veterans, and ordinary citizens whose lives were intertwined with the city's history.
The Mount Pleasant Cemetery Historic Tour explores Mount Pleasant Cemetery at 5420 106 Street in the Highlands neighborhood, one of Edmonton's oldest and most beautiful cemeteries. Established in 1906 as the cemetery for the town of Strathcona (before it merged with Edmonton), Mount Pleasant contains numerous historical monuments, mausoleums, and graves of notable individuals. The tour tells the stories of immigrants, politicians, activists, historians, murder victims, and events that shaped Edmonton and Strathcona. As the tour description states, “Mount Pleasant Cemetery tells a story that cannot be found in textbooks.”
Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) Historical Walking Tour: The Retelling of a Retail Store explores the history of the famous Hudson's Bay department store and its role in the development of Edmonton and Canada. Founded in 1670, the Hudson's Bay Company is one of the oldest commercial corporations in the world and played a critical role in the exploration, trade, and colonization of Canada. The tour recounts how the company evolved from fur trading to retail, and how its department stores became cultural and social hubs in Canadian cities.
Alberta History Tours also organizes tours during the Edmonton Historical Festival in July, which is an annual celebration of the history of Edmonton and the surrounding area with over 50 events, including tours, lectures, exhibitions, and hands-on programs. Alberta History Tours tours typically last 1.5-2 hours and require advance registration.
Edmonton Ghost Tours: Edmonton's Haunted Past
For those interested in the darker side of Edmonton's history, Edmonton Ghost Tours offers a series of walking tours that explore the haunted stories, murders, mysteries, and paranormal phenomena associated with Edmonton's historic buildings and sites. Founder and owner Nadine Bailey has over fifteen years of experience as a veteran storyteller and personally researches all of the stories told on the tours, ensuring that they are authentic and based on testimonials from local residents and business owners.
Old Strathcona Ghost Tour is Edmonton Ghost Tours' most popular tour. This hour-long (or slightly longer with large groups) walking tour takes participants through the streets of Old Strathcona, stopping in front of the Strathcona Hotel, Princess Theatre, Old Scona Academic High School, Walterdale Theatre, and many other buildings, houses, and shops where ghosts, hauntings, murders, and mysteries have been reported. Bailey tells the stories with dramatic flair and humor — for example, the story of a murdered woman at the Strathcona Hotel who allegedly walks the halls in search of her missing head (a story dating back to 1982); an unsolved murder in the building that now houses Cinnaholix, where in 1911 a man's body was found in a well with a bullet wound to the head; and other creepy and depressing stories.Bailey also includes stops that are haunted in a completely different sense — for example, she talks about meeting the artist behind the famous “breast wolf” mural opposite the Farmers' Market and what this mural, which has puzzled Edmontonians for years, actually means. The tours aren't all about fear — Bailey has a unique gift for poking fun at everyone on the tour for the most unbelievable things, creating a fun and relaxed atmosphere even when telling the most gruesome stories.The University of Alberta History and Haunted Hike explores the ghostly history of the University of Alberta campus, including legends of ghosts in historic buildings such as Pembina Hall, Rutherford House, and others. The Haunted Trolley Tour takes participants across the High Level Bridge in a historic trolley, telling stories of ghosts that allegedly haunt the ATB Financial Arts Barns, the University of Alberta, and the High Level Bridge itself. The trolley stops in the middle of the bridge twice for photo ops, creating a particularly spooky experience.Edmonton Ghost Tours run from May to October, with peak popularity in October during the Halloween season. Tickets range from approximately $17 to $43 depending on the tour and must be purchased in advance. The tours are described as family-friendly and suitable for all ages, although some stories may be too spooky for young children. As one reviewer notes, “Even if you don't believe in the paranormal, the Old Strathcona Ghost Tour has something for everyone.”
Food walking tours: history through cuisine
Food is a powerful way to explore culture and history, and Edmonton offers several food walking tours that combine culinary discoveries with historical and cultural stories about the neighborhoods and people who shaped the city's culinary scene.
The Edmonton Food Walk Tour on 124th Street is a 3.25-hour guided experience that takes participants to six incredible stops, each offering a taste of Edmonton's diverse culinary scene. The tour includes visits to Duchess Bake Shop (known for its exquisite pastries and macarons), The Butchery (more than just a butcher shop, it's a hub of local flavor with passionate owners), Juana Ines (Mexican cuisine), Culina To Go, KB & Co (handcrafted delicacies), and Tiramisu Bistro (family-style pasta and classic Italian desserts). Many reviewers name Tiramisu Bistro as their favorite stop, especially praising the friendly hosts and quality of the food.
What makes this tour special is that the guides share personal stories from the chefs and owners, often providing behind-the-scenes access to kitchens and production areas. Participants don't just taste the food—they learn about the people who create it, their journeys, philosophies, and connections to the community. The tour also includes a walk along the River Valley Promenade boardwalk with panoramic views of the North Saskatchewan River, providing a scenic break from the food tastings.
The Old Strathcona Food Tour explores the culinary scene of the Old Strathcona neighborhood, known for its eclectic mix of restaurants, cafes, bakeries, and bars. Edmonton Food Tours offers Downtown Delights and Strathcona Brunch and Bakeries tours, primarily in the summer but year-round for private groups. These tours combine Strathcona's history as a separate town until 1912 with its contemporary food culture, telling the story of the immigrants who opened the first restaurants and bakeries and the evolution of the neighborhood's culinary traditions.
Chinatown Dragon Food Tours offers a unique culinary journey through Edmonton's vibrant Chinatown. The “Mini Dragon Food Tour: Savory Meets Sweet” offers a wonderful mix of the neighborhood's most iconic flavors, giving you the opportunity to sample both savory and sweet Asian dishes. The tour explores the history of Chinese immigration to Edmonton, the role of the Chinese community in the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and the development of Chinatown as a cultural and economic center for Asian communities.
Food walking tours typically include all food and drinks in the ticket price, last 3-4 hours, and require advance registration, as groups are limited to 15 participants to ensure a personal experience. Prices range from approximately $100-$150 per person, making them an investment, but participants receive a significant amount of food (usually equivalent to a full lunch or dinner) plus the educational and cultural value of the tour.
Museums and Historic Sites with Walking Tours
Several of Edmonton's museums and historic sites offer guided walking tours of their grounds, buildings, and exhibits, providing a deeper understanding of specific periods or aspects of Edmonton's history.
The John Walter Museum, located in beautiful Kinsmen Park in Edmonton's river valley, tells the story of pioneer John Walter and the Walterdale community in Strathcona from 1870 to 1942. The museum includes three original Walter family homes, and visitors can explore the homes and surrounding grounds while learning about John, his family, his community, and his experience as a settler in the Edmonton region. The museum offers a program called “A Ferry Tale in Walterdale,” which explores the history of John Walter's ferry system, which transported people and goods across the North Saskatchewan River before bridges were built. The remains of one of the ferries can still be seen near the museum.
The John Walter Museum offers free tours on Sunday afternoons in the summer (starting in spring 2026), as well as special programs, workshops, and events throughout the year. The museum also offers pioneer-themed children's birthday parties, where children can bake on a wood-fired stove and make crafts.
Rutherford House Provincial Historic Site, located at 11153 Saskatchewan Drive near the University of Alberta campus, is a restored 1911 Edwardian mansion that belonged to Alexander Cameron Rutherford, Alberta's first premier. Rutherford House offers guided tours with costumed interpreters who share stories about the Rutherford family, the political history of early Alberta, Edwardian architecture, and social history. Tours include the main floor and second floor of the house (the basement is wheelchair accessible, but the second floor is not).
Rutherford House is open Wednesday through Sunday from 10:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. and is closed on Christmas, Boxing Day, and New Year's Day. Admission is $7 for adults, $6 for seniors and students, $5 for youth (7-17), $20 for families (2 adults + youth, maximum 8 people), and free for children 0-6 and Canadian military personnel and their families (with CFOne card). It is recommended to call ahead to ensure that an interpreter will be available to conduct the tour.
Alberta Legislature Building offers free guided tours that cover the history of the government building, Beaux-Arts architecture, Alberta's political processes, and parliamentary traditions. The 45-minute tours begin in the Legislature Rotunda and are informative and entertaining for all ages. Tours are available in the summer from Wednesday to Sunday (and on statutory holidays) between 10:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m., and registration is required. Space is limited, and tours can be reserved in person or online through the Legislative Assembly of Alberta website.
The Legislature also has an interactive Visitor Centre in the Queen Elizabeth II Building, located north of the Legislature Building, which includes the Borealis Gallery, Capital Gifts, Democracy Discovery Centre, and Pehonan Theatre with a 15-minute film, “Our People, Our Province,” on a 360-degree screen—a unique 4D experience that takes you through Alberta's social and political history. Admission to the Visitor Centre is free and does not require advance registration.
The Provincial Archives of Alberta offers “Behind the Scenes” tours during the Edmonton Historical Festival, where visitors can see how the archives work and how historical records, photographs, maps, and other documents are stored and processed. The archives are the permanent archival repository of the Government of Alberta and contain 51,540 linear metres of government textual records, 4,360 linear metres of private textual records, 150,750 maps, plans, and drawings, 1,788,700 photographs, 69,740 audiovisual items, and 14,625 resource library books. The tours provide a rare opportunity to see behind the scenes of the archives and learn how history is collected, preserved, and made available to the public.
Neighborhood and Specialized History Tours
Several neighborhood organizations and specialized groups organize walking tours that explore the history of specific communities or themes.
The Beverly Historical Society (Olde Towne Beverly) organizes Interpretive Centre tours that explore the history of Beverly, a former separate town in northeast Edmonton that amalgamated with Edmonton in 1961. Beverly was built on coal—there are numerous coal mining artifacts on display, a Victorian gramophone cabinet, a “guzunder” (night pot), sports memorabilia, and many other interesting artifacts. An interpreter is on hand to answer questions or guide. The Olde Towne Beverly walking tour can also be arranged for groups of 4 or more by calling (780) 904-5530. Donations are gratefully accepted to continue school programs.
The Edmonton Queer History Project organizes exhibitions and tours that explore the history of the LGBTQ2S+ community in Edmonton, including the Regulating Morality exhibition at Fort Edmonton Park. The project documents the places, events, organizations, and people that have shaped the city's queer history, from underground bars and bookstores to activism and rights struggles.
Jane's Walk YEG organizes free, community-led walking tours during the first week of May each year as part of the global Jane's Walk movement, inspired by activist and writer Jane Jacobs. These tours are organized by local residents who share their knowledge of their neighborhoods, history, architecture, social issues, or any other topics that interest them. Anyone can propose and lead a Jane's Walk, making it a truly democratic and diverse exploration of the city through the eyes of its residents.
Bike tours with historical elements
Although this article focuses on walking tours, it is worth mentioning that Edmonton also offers bike tours that cover historical locations and stories, especially for those who want to cover more ground in less time.
The Edmonton Food Bike Tour combines cycling (including e-bikes for easy riding) with culinary discoveries, passing through the river valley and past landmarks such as the Legislature Building and the North Saskatchewan River. The Festival Food Bike Tour explores Edmonton's festive flavors during Taste of Edmonton and K-Days, offering VIP access and skipping the long lines. The Edmonton City Highlights 3-Hour Bike Tour (with the option to upgrade to an e-bike) takes participants to the main attractions of the city center with stories about history, architecture, and urban culture.
Bike tours typically cost $140-$150 per person, last 4-5 hours, and include a bike, helmet, guide, and (for food tours) all food tastings. They are a great option for active travelers who want to combine exercise with cultural exploration.
Conclusion: Edmonton's wealth of historical walking tours
Edmonton offers an incredibly diverse range of walking tours that tell the story of the city — from official self-guided tours developed by the city, to guided tours by professional companies, from free donation-based tours to specialized tours exploring specific themes such as Indigenous history, working-class history, architecture, ghosts, or food. These tours allow visitors to explore the different layers of Edmonton's history, from millennia of indigenous presence to the fur trade, the pioneer era, industrialization, immigration, social movements, and modern development.
What makes walking tours particularly valuable is that they offer a slow, intimate way to explore, where you can stop, look closely, ask questions, and soak up the atmosphere of historic sites. Unlike reading a book or watching a documentary, a walking tour allows you to physically stand in the places where historical events took place, see the buildings that have witnessed change over the centuries, and hear stories from passionate guides who bring the past to life through vivid storytelling and personal connections.
For newcomers to Edmonton, especially those from Ukraine or other countries with rich histories, walking tours are a great way to not only learn about Canadian and Albertan history, but also to feel a connection to their new home. History is not abstract — it is present in the streets, in the buildings, in the names of neighborhoods, and in people's stories. Participating in walking tours helps you understand how Edmonton became the city it is today and how the past continues to shape the present and future.
Most tours are accessible (many are free or inexpensive), suitable for all ages and fitness levels, and available throughout most of the year, especially in the summer. It is recommended to book in advance for tours with limited space, dress for the weather (tours are held rain or shine), wear comfortable walking shoes, and bring water, especially on hot summer days. Many tours also offer winter versions on snowshoes or adapted for cold weather, allowing you to explore Edmonton's history year-round.Whether you're a history buff, architecture lover, foodie, ghost hunter, or just a curious newcomer wanting to learn about your new city, Edmonton's walking tours offer something for everyone. They transform a stroll through the city streets into a journey through time, where every building, every corner, every street name has a story waiting to be discovered.